Pediatric Emergencies and Resuscitation
1. Initial Assessment and Response
1.1 Pediatric Assessment Triangle (PAT)
The PAT provides rapid evaluation of a child's physiological status through three components:
- Appearance: Tone, interactivity, consolability, look/gaze, speech/cry
- Work of Breathing: Abnormal airway sounds, abnormal positioning, retractions, nasal flaring
- Circulation to Skin: Pallor, mottling, cyanosis
1.2 Primary Survey (ABCDE)
A - Airway
- Assess patency
- Look for foreign bodies
- Check positioning
- Consider cervical spine protection if trauma
B - Breathing
- Respiratory rate (age-specific norms)
- Work of breathing
- Breath sounds
- SpO2 monitoring
C - Circulation
- Heart rate (age-specific norms)
- Pulse quality
- Capillary refill time
- Blood pressure
D - Disability
- AVPU scale or Glasgow Coma Scale
- Pupillary response
- Posturing
E - Exposure
- Temperature
- Rashes
- Injuries
- Prevent heat loss
2. Pediatric Basic Life Support (BLS)
2.1 High-Quality CPR Components
Component | Infant (<1 year) | Child (1 year to puberty) |
---|---|---|
Compression depth | 4 cm (1.5 inches) | 5 cm (2 inches) |
Compression rate | 100-120/min | |
Compression technique | Two fingers or two thumbs encircling | Heel of one or two hands |
Compression:Ventilation ratio | 30:2 (single rescuer), 15:2 (two rescuers) |
2.2 Sequence of BLS
- Ensure scene safety
- Check responsiveness
- Call for help/activate emergency response
- Check breathing and pulse (≤10 seconds)
- Begin compressions if no pulse or pulse <60/min with poor perfusion
- Provide rescue breaths
- Continue cycles of compressions and ventilations
3. Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS)
3.1 Airway Management
Progressive approach to airway management:
- Basic Airway Maneuvers:
- Head tilt-chin lift (non-trauma)
- Jaw thrust (trauma)
- Oropharyngeal airway (unconscious)
- Nasopharyngeal airway (conscious/semiconscious)
- Advanced Airway:
- Endotracheal intubation
- Supraglottic airway devices
- Proper tube size selection: Age/4 + 4 (uncuffed)
3.2 Vascular Access
Priority Order:
- Peripheral IV (first choice)
- Intraosseous access (if IV unsuccessful after 90 seconds)
- Central venous access (special circumstances)
4. Shock Recognition and Management
4.1 Types of Shock
Type | Characteristics | Initial Management |
---|---|---|
Hypovolemic | Decreased preload, tachycardia, poor perfusion | Crystalloid bolus 20mL/kg |
Cardiogenic | Poor contractility, hepatomegaly, crackles | Support perfusion, consider inotropes |
Distributive | Vasodilation, warm shock initially | Fluids + vasopressors if needed |
Obstructive | Decreased cardiac filling, distended neck veins | Treat underlying cause |
4.2 Fluid Resuscitation
Key Points:
- Initial bolus: 20mL/kg isotonic crystalloid
- Reassess after each bolus
- Watch for signs of fluid overload
- Consider blood products in hemorrhagic shock
5. Cardiac Arrhythmias
5.1 Tachyarrhythmias
Assessment and management of common pediatric tachyarrhythmias:
- Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT):
- Regular, narrow complex tachycardia
- Rate usually >220/min in infants
- Initial management: vagal maneuvers
- Adenosine if stable with IV access
- Ventricular Tachycardia (VT):
- Wide complex tachycardia
- Synchronized cardioversion if unstable
- Consider antiarrhythmics if stable
5.2 Bradyarrhythmias
Management algorithm:
- Identify symptomatic bradycardia (HR <60 with poor perfusion)
- Ensure adequate oxygenation and ventilation
- Begin chest compressions if HR remains <60
- Consider:
- Epinephrine
- Atropine (if vagal or AV block)
- Transcutaneous pacing
6. Post-Resuscitation Care
6.1 Systematic Approach
- Ventilation and Oxygenation:
- Target SpO2 94-99%
- Avoid hyperoxia and hyperventilation
- Monitor ETCO2
- Hemodynamic Monitoring:
- Maintain adequate blood pressure
- Consider vasoactive support
- Monitor urine output
- Neurological Care:
- Consider therapeutic hypothermia
- Seizure monitoring and management
- Regular neurological assessments
6.2 Common Complications
Watch for and prevent:
- Respiratory failure
- Metabolic derangements
- Renal dysfunction
- Coagulopathy
- Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome
7. Quality Improvement in Pediatric Resuscitation
7.1 Team Dynamics
- Clear role assignment
- Closed-loop communication
- Regular team training
- Debriefing after events
7.2 Documentation
Essential elements to record:
- Timing of interventions
- Medication doses and routes
- Response to interventions
- Team member roles
- Family presence and communication
References and Further Reading:
- Current Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) Guidelines
- European Resuscitation Council Guidelines
- Local and institutional protocols